Early life
At Ardsley High School, Zuckerberg excelled
in classics. He transferred to Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire
in his junior year, where he won prizes in science (math, astronomy and
physics) and classical studies. On his college application, Zuckerberg
claimed that he could read and write French, Hebrew, Latin, and ancient
Greek. He was captain of the fencing team. In college, he was known for
reciting lines from epic poems such as The Iliad.
Software developer
Early years
Zuckerberg began using computers and writing
software in middle school. His father taught him Atari
BASIC Programming in the 1990s, and later
hired software developer David Newman to tutor him privately. Newman calls
him a "prodigy", adding that it was "tough to stay ahead of
him". Zuckerberg took a graduate course in the subject at Mercy College near his home while still
in high school. He enjoyed developing computer programs, especially
communication tools and games. In one such program, since his father's dental
practice was operated from their home, he built a software program he called
"ZuckNet" that allowed all the computers between the house and
dental office to communicate with each other. It is considered a "primitive"
version of AOL's
Instant Messenger, which came out the
following year.
According to writer Jose Antonio Vargas, "some kids
played computer games. Mark created them." Zuckerberg himself recalls
this period: "I had a bunch of friends who were artists. They'd come
over, draw stuff, and I'd build a game out of it." However, notes
Vargas, Zuckerberg was not a typical "geek-klutz", as he later
became captain of his prep school fencing
team and earned a classics diploma. Napster
co-founder Sean Parker, a close friend, notes that
Zuckerberg was "really into Greek odysseys and all that stuff",
recalling how he once quoted lines from the Roman epic poem Aeneid,
by Virgil,
during a Facebook product conference.
During Zuckerberg's high school years, under
the company name Intelligent Media Group, he built a music player called the
Synapse Media Player that used machine
learning to learn the user's listening habits, which was posted to
Slashdot
and received a rating of 3 out of 5 from PC Magazine.
College years
By the time he began classes at Harvard,
Zuckerberg had already achieved a "reputation as a programming
prodigy", notes Vargas. He studied psychology
and computer science as well as belonging to Alpha
Epsilon Pi, a Jewish fraternity, and Kirkland
House. In his sophomore
year, he wrote a program he called CourseMatch, which allowed
users to make class selection decisions based on the choices of other
students and also to help them form study groups. A short time later, he
created a different program he initially called Facemash
that let students select the best looking person from a choice of photos.
According to Zuckerberg's roommate at the time, Arie Hasit, "he built
the site for fun". Hasit explains:
We had books called Face Books, which included
the names and pictures of everyone who lived in the student dorms. At first,
he built a site and placed two pictures, or pictures of two males and two
females. Visitors to the site had to choose who was "hotter" and
according to the votes there would be a ranking.
The site went up over a weekend; but by Monday
morning, the college shut it down because its popularity had overwhelmed one
of Harvard's network switches and prevented students from
accessing the Internet. In addition, many students complained that their
photos were being used without permission. Zuckerberg apologized publicly,
and the student paper ran articles stating that his site was "completely
improper."
The following semester, in January 2004,
Zuckerberg began writing code for a new website.On February 4, 2004,
Zuckerberg launched "Thefacebook", originally located at
thefacebook.com.
Six days after the site launched, three Harvard
seniors, Cameron Winklevoss, Tyler
Winklevoss, and Divya
Narendra, accused Zuckerberg of intentionally misleading them into
believing he would help them build a social network called HarvardConnection.com,
while he was instead using their ideas to build a competing product. The
three complained to the Harvard Crimson and the newspaper began an
investigation in response.
Following the official launch of the Facebook
social media platform, the three filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg that
resulted in a settlement. The agreed settlement was for 1.2 million Facebook
shares that were worth US$300 million at Facebook's IPO.
Zuckerberg dropped out of Harvard in his
sophomore year to complete his project. In January 2014, Zuckerberg recalled:
I remember really vividly, you know, having
pizza with my friends a day or two after—I opened up the first version of
Facebook at the time I thought, "You know, someone needs to build a
service like this for the world." But I just never thought that we'd be
the ones to help do it. And I think a lot of what it comes down to is we just
cared more.
Career
Facebook
Zuckerberg launched Facebook from his Harvard
dormitory room on February 4, 2004.An earlier inspiration for Facebook may
have come from Phillips Exeter Academy, the prep school
from which Zuckerberg graduated in 2002. It published its own student
directory, "The Photo Address Book", which students referred to as
"The Facebook". Such photo directories were an important part of
the student social experience at many private schools. With them, students
were able to list attributes such as their class years, their friends, and
their telephone numbers.
Once at college, Zuckerberg's Facebook started
off as just a "Harvard thing" until Zuckerberg decided to spread it
to other schools, enlisting the help of roommate Dustin
Moskovitz. They began with Columbia, New York University, Stanford,
Dartmouth, Cornell,
Penn, Brown,
and Yale. Samyr Laine,
a triple
jumper representing Haiti at the 2012 Summer Olympics, shared a room with
Zuckerberg during Facebook's founding. "Mark was clearly on to great
things," said Laine, who was Facebook's fourteenth user.
After Zuckerberg moved to Palo Alto, California with Moskovitz and
some friends, they leased a small house that served as an office. Over the
summer, Zuckerberg met Peter Thiel who invested in the company. They
got their first office in mid-2004. According to Zuckerberg, the group
planned to return to Harvard but eventually decided to remain in California.
They had already turned down offers by major corporations to buy the company.
In an interview in 2007, Zuckerberg explained his reasoning: "It's not
because of the amount of money. For me and my colleagues, the most important
thing is that we create an open information flow for people. Having media
corporations owned by conglomerates is just not an attractive
idea to me."
He restated these goals to Wired magazine in 2010: "The thing I
really care about is the mission, making the world open." Earlier, in
April 2009, Zuckerberg sought the advice of former Netscape
CFO Peter Currie about financing strategies
for Facebook. On July 21, 2010, Zuckerberg reported that the company reached
the 500 million-user mark. When asked whether Facebook could earn more income
from advertising as a result of its phenomenal growth, he explained:
I guess we could..... If you look at how much
of our page is taken up with ads compared to the average search query. The average for us is a
little less than 10 percent of the pages and the average for search is about
20 percent taken up with ads..... That's the simplest thing we could do. But
we aren't like that. We make enough money. Right, I mean, we are keeping
things running; we are growing at the rate we want to.
In 2010, Steven Levy,
who wrote the 1984 book Hackers: Heroes of the Computer
Revolution, wrote that Zuckerberg "clearly thinks of himself
as a hacker". Zuckerberg
said that "it's OK to break things" "to make them better".
Facebook instituted "hackathons" held every six to eight
weeks where participants would have one night to conceive of and complete a
project. The company provided music, food, and beer at the hackathons, and
many Facebook staff members, including Zuckerberg, regularly attended.
"The idea is that you can build something really good in a night",
Zuckerberg told Levy. "And that' part of the personality of Facebook
now..... It's definitely very core to my personality."
Vanity Fair magazine named
Zuckerberg number 1 on its 2010 list of the Top 100 "most influential
people of the Information Age".Zuckerberg ranked
number 23 on the Vanity Fair 100 list in 2009. In 2010, Zuckerberg was
chosen as number 16 in New
Statesman's annual survey of the world's 50 most influential
figures.
In a 2011 interview with PBS after the death of Steve Jobs,
Zuckerberg said that Jobs had advised him on how to create a management team
at Facebook that was "focused on building as high quality and good
things as you are".
On October 1, 2012, Zuckerberg visited Russian
Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev in Moscow to stimulate social
media innovation in Russia and to boost Facebook's position in the Russian
market. Russia's communications minister tweeted that Prime Minister Dmitry
Medvedev urged the social media giant's founder to abandon plans to lure away
Russian programmers and instead consider opening a research center in Moscow.
In 2012, Facebook had roughly 9 million users in Russia, while domestic clone
VK had around 34 million. Rebecca Van
Dyck, Facebook's head of consumer marketing, claimed that 85 million American
Facebook users were exposed to the first day of the Home promotional campaign
on April 6, 2013.
On August 19, 2013, the Washington
Post reported that Zuckerberg's Facebook profile was hacked by
an unemployed web developer.
At the 2013 TechCrunch Disrupt conference, held
in September, Zuckerberg stated that he is working towards registering the 5
billion humans who were not connected to the Internet as of the conference on
Facebook. Zuckerberg then explained that this is intertwined with the aim of
the Internet.org project, whereby Facebook, with the support of other
technology companies, seeks to increase the number of people connected to the
internet.
Zuckerberg was the keynote speaker at the 2014
Mobile World Congress (MWC), held in Barcelona, Spain, in March 2014, which
was attended by 75,000 delegates. Various media sources highlighted the
connection between Facebook's focus on mobile technology and Zuckerberg's
speech, claiming that mobile represents the future of the company.Zuckerberg's
speech expands upon the goal that he raised at the TechCrunch conference in
September 2013, whereby he is working towards expanding Internet coverage
into developing countries.
Alongside other American technology figures
like Jeff Bezos
and Tim Cook,
Zuckerberg hosted visiting Chinese politician Lu Wei, known as the
"Internet czar" for his influence in the enforcement of China's
online policy, at Facebook's headquarters on December 8, 2014. The meeting
occurred after Zuckerberg participated in a Q&A session at Tsinghua
University in Beijing, China, on October 23, 2014, where he attempted to
converse in Mandarin Chinese—although Facebook is banned
in China, Zuckerberg is highly regarded among the people and was at the
university to help fuel the nation's burgeoning entrepreneur sector.
Zuckerberg fielded questions during a live
Q&A session at the company's headquarters in Menlo Park on December 11,
2014. The founder and CEO explained that he does not believe Facebook is a
waste of time because it facilitates social engagement, and participating in
a public session was so that he could "learn how to better serve the
community".
Wirehog
A month after Facebook launched in February
2004, i2hub,
another campus-only service, created by Wayne Chang,
was launched. i2hub focused on peer-to-peer
file sharing. At the time, both i2hub and Facebook were gaining the attention
of the press and growing rapidly in users and publicity. In August 2004,
Zuckerberg, Andrew McCollum, Adam
D'Angelo, and Sean Parker launched a competing peer-to-peer
file sharing service called Wirehog, a precursor to Facebook Platform applications.
Platform, Beacon and Connect
On May 24, 2007, Zuckerberg announced Facebook Platform, a development platform for
programmers to create social applications within Facebook. Within weeks, many
applications had been built and some already had millions of users. It grew
to more than 800,000 developers around the world building applications for
Facebook Platform.[citation
needed]
On November 6, 2007, Zuckerberg announced
Beacon, a social advertising system that enabled people to share information
with their Facebook friends based on their browsing activities on other
sites. For example, eBay
sellers could let friends know automatically what they have for sale via the
Facebook news feed as they listed items for sale. The program came under
scrutiny because of privacy concerns from groups and individual users. Zuckerberg
and Facebook failed to respond to the concerns quickly, and on December 5,
2007, Zuckerberg wrote a blog post on Facebook, taking responsibility for the
concerns about Beacon and offering an easier way for users to opt out of the
service.
In 2007, Zuckerberg was named by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Technology Review's TR35 as one of the top
35 innovators in the world under the age of 35.On July 23, 2008, Zuckerberg
announced Facebook Connect, a version of Facebook
Platform for users.
Internet.org
In a public Facebook post, Zuckerberg launched
the Internet.org
project in late August 2013. Zuckerberg explained that the primary aim of the
initiative is to provide Internet access to the 5 billion people who are not
connected as of the launch date. Using a three-tier strategy, Internet.org
will also create new jobs and open up new markets, according to Zuckerberg.
He stated in his post:
The world economy is going through a massive
transition right now. The knowledge economy is the future. By bringing
everyone online, we'll not only improve billions of lives, but we'll also
improve our own as we benefit from the ideas and productivity they contribute
to the world. Giving everyone the opportunity to connect is the foundation
for enabling the knowledge economy. It is not the only thing we need to do,
but it's a fundamental and necessary step.
To stay proven on the efforts of bringing in the
concept of net neutrality, Mark Zuckerberg met Narendra
Modi, Satya Nadella and Sundar
Pichai at the Silicon
Valley, USA to discuss on how to effectively
establish affordable Internet access to the less developed countries. As a token
of initiation, Mark Zuckerberg changed his Facebook profile picture to extend
his support to the Digital India to help the rural communities
to stay connected to the Internet.
Legal controversies
ConnectU lawsuits
Harvard students Cameron Winklevoss, Tyler Winklevoss,
and Divya Narendra accused Zuckerberg of
intentionally making them believe he would help them build a social network
called HarvardConnection.com (later called ConnectU)
They filed a lawsuit in 2004, but it was dismissed on a technicality on
March 28, 2007. It was refiled soon thereafter in federal
court in Boston. Facebook countersued in regards to Social Butterfly,
a project put out by The Winklevoss Chang Group, an alleged
partnership between ConnectU and i2hub. On June 25, 2008, the case settled and Facebook
agreed to transfer over 1.2 million common shares and pay $20 million in cash.
In November 2007, confidential court documents
were posted on the website of 02138, a magazine that catered to Harvard alumni. They
included Zuckerberg's social security number, his parents' home address, and
his girlfriend's address. Facebook filed to have the documents removed, but
the judge ruled in favor of 02138.
Saverin lawsuit
A lawsuit filed by Eduardo
Saverin against Facebook and Zuckerberg was settled out of court.
Though terms of the settlement were sealed, the company affirmed Saverin's
title as co-founder of Facebook. Saverin signed a non-disclosure contract
after the settlement.
Pakistan criminal investigation
In June 2010, Pakistani
Deputy Attorney General Muhammad Azhar Sidiqque launched a criminal
investigation into Zuckerberg and Facebook co-founders Dustin
Moskovitz and Chris Hughes after a "Draw Muhammad" contest was hosted
on Facebook. The investigation named the anonymous German woman who created
the contest. Sidiqque asked the country's police to contact Interpol
to have Zuckerberg and the three others arrested for blasphemy.
On May 19, 2010, Facebook's website was temporarily blocked in Pakistan until
Facebook removed the contest from its website at the end of May. Sidiqque
also asked its UN representative to raise the issue with the United Nations General Assembly.
Paul Ceglia
In June 2010, Paul Ceglia, the owner of a wood pellet
fuel company in Allegany County, upstate New York, filed
suit against Zuckerberg, claiming 84% ownership of Facebook and seeking
monetary damages. According to Ceglia, he and Zuckerberg signed a contract on
April 28, 2003, that an initial fee of $1,000 entitled Ceglia to 50% of the
website's revenue, as well as an additional 1% interest in the business per
day after January 1, 2004, until website completion. Zuckerberg was
developing other projects at the time, among which was Facemash, the
predecessor of Facebook, but did not register the domain name thefacebook.com
until January 1, 2004. Facebook management dismissed the lawsuit as
"completely frivolous". Facebook spokesman Barry Schnitt told a
reporter that Ceglia's counsel had unsuccessfully sought an out-of-court
settlement.
On October 26, 2012, federal authorities
arrested Ceglia, charging him with mail and wire fraud and of "tampering
with, destroying and fabricating evidence in a scheme to defraud the Facebook
founder of billions of dollars." Ceglia is accused of fabricating emails
to make it appear that he and Zuckerberg discussed details about an early
version of Facebook, although after examining their emails, investigators
found there was no mention of Facebook in them.Some law firms withdrew from
the case before it was initiated and others after Ceglia's arrest.
Depictions in media
The Social Network
A movie based on Zuckerberg and the founding
years of Facebook, The Social Network was released on
October 1, 2010, and stars Jesse Eisenberg
as Zuckerberg. After Zuckerberg was told about the film, he responded,
"I just wished that nobody made a movie of me while I was still alive."
Also, after the film's script was leaked on the Internet and it was apparent
that the film would not portray Zuckerberg in a wholly positive light, he
stated that he wanted to establish himself as a "good guy". The
film is based on the book The Accidental Billionaires by Ben Mezrich,
which the book's publicist once described as "big juicy fun" rather
than "reportage". The film's screenwriter Aaron
Sorkin told New York magazine, "I don't
want my fidelity to be the truth; I want it to be storytelling", adding,
"What is the big deal about accuracy purely for accuracy's sake, and can
we not have the true be the enemy of the good?"
Upon winning the Golden
Globes award for Best Picture on January 16, 2011, producer Scott Rudin
thanked Facebook and Zuckerberg "for his willingness to allow us to use
his life and work as a metaphor through which to tell a story about communication
and the way we relate to each other.” Sorkin, who won for Best Screenplay,
retracted some of the impressions given in his script:
"I
wanted to say to Mark Zuckerberg tonight, if you're watching, Rooney Mara's
character makes a prediction at the beginning of the movie. She was wrong.
You turned out to be a great entrepreneur, a visionary, and an incredible
altruist."
On January 29, 2011, Zuckerberg made a surprise
guest appearance on Saturday Night Live, which was being
hosted by Jesse Eisenberg. They both said it was the first time they ever met.
Eisenberg asked Zuckerberg, who had been critical of his portrayal by the
film, what he thought of the movie. Zuckerberg replied, "It was
interesting." In a subsequent interview about their meeting, Eisenberg
explains that he was "nervous to meet him, because I had spent now, a
year and a half thinking about him ..." He adds, "Mark has
been so gracious about something that’s really so uncomfortable ... The
fact that he would do SNL and make fun of the situation is so sweet
and so generous. It’s the best possible way to handle something that, I
think, could otherwise be very uncomfortable."
Disputed accuracy
Jeff Jarvis, author of the book Public Parts,
interviewed Zuckerberg and believes Sorkin made up too much of the story. He
states, "That's what the internet is accused of doing, making stuff up,
not caring about the facts."
According to David Kirkpatrick, former
technology editor at Fortune magazine and author of The
Facebook Effect:The Inside Story of the Company That Is Connecting the World,
(2011),"the film is only "40% true ... he is not snide and
sarcastic in a cruel way, the way Zuckerberg is played in the movie." He
says that "a lot of the factual incidents are accurate, but many are
distorted and the overall impression is false", and concludes that
primarily "his motivations were to try and come up with a new way to
share information on the internet".
Although the film portrays Zuckerberg's
creation of Facebook in order to elevate his stature after not getting into
any of the elite final clubs at Harvard, Zuckerberg himself
said he had no interest in joining the clubs. Kirkpatrick agrees that the
impression implied by the film is "false". Karel Baloun, a former
senior engineer at Facebook, notes that the "image of Zuckerberg as a
socially inept nerd is overstated..... It is fiction....." He likewise
dismisses the film's assertion that he "would deliberately betray a
friend".
Other depictions
Zuckerberg voiced himself on an episode of The
Simpsons titled "Loan-a Lisa",
which first aired on October 3, 2010. In the episode, Lisa
Simpson and her friend Nelson encounter Zuckerberg at an
entrepreneurs' convention. Zuckerberg tells Lisa that she does not need to
graduate from college to be wildly successful, referencing Bill Gates
and Richard Branson as examples.
On October 9, 2010, Saturday Night Live lampooned
Zuckerberg and Facebook. Andy Samberg played Zuckerberg. The real
Zuckerberg was reported to have been amused: "I thought this was funny."
Use of other social networks
Zuckerberg created an account with Google+ soon
after the social network was unveiled, saying he sees it as a
"validation for his vision" of online social networking. By July
2011, Zuckerberg had become the most followed user on Google+, outranking
Google co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin.
As of March 6, 2012, his ranking has dropped to 184 on the service, behind
Page and Brin. His public profile is minimal with one photo and a bio that
reads "I make things".
Zuckerberg has maintained a private account on
Twitter under the username "zuck", although as of November 2014,
the account's status is suspended. In 2009, he revealed that the public
account "finkd" also belonged to him.
Philanthropy
Zuckerberg donated an undisclosed amount to Diaspora, an open-source personal web
server that implements a distributed social networking service. He called it
a "cool idea".
Zuckerberg founded the Start-up: Education
foundation. On September 22, 2010, it was reported that Zuckerberg had
donated $100million to Newark Public Schools, the public school
system of Newark, New Jersey. Critics noted the
timing of the donation as being close to the release of The Social Network,
which painted a somewhat negative portrait of Zuckerberg.Zuckerberg responded
to the criticism, saying, "The thing that I was most sensitive about
with the movie timing was, I didn't want the press about The Social
Network movie to get conflated with the Newark project. I was thinking
about doing this anonymously just so that the two things could be kept
separate." Newark Mayor Cory A.
Booker stated that he and New Jersey Governor Chris
Christie had to convince Zuckerberg's team not to make the
donation anonymously. The money was largely wasted, according to journalist
Dale Russakoff.
On December 9, 2010, Zuckerberg, Bill Gates,
and investor Warren Buffett signed a promise they called
"The Giving Pledge ", in which they
promised to donate to charity at least half of their wealth over the course
of time, and invited others among the wealthy to donate 50% or more of their
wealth to charity.
On December 19, 2013, Zuckerberg announced a
donation of 18 million Facebook shares to the Silicon Valley Community Foundation,
to be executed by the end of the month—based on Facebook's valuation as of
then, the shares totaled $990 million in value. On December 31, 2013, the
donation was recognized as the largest charitable gift on public record for
2013. The Chronicle of Philanthropy
placed Zuckerberg and his wife at the top of the magazine's annual list of 50
most generous Americans for 2013, having donated roughly $1 billion to
charity.
Politics
In 2002, Zuckerberg registered to vote in Westchester County, New York,
where he grew up, but did not cast a ballot until November 2008. Santa Clara County
Registrar of Voters Spokeswoman, Elma Rosas, told Bloomberg that Zuckerberg
is listed as “no preference” on voter rolls, and he voted in the past two
general elections, in 2008 and 2012. On Zuckerberg's
Facebook page, he has Chris Christie, Cory Booker,
Nicolas Sarkozy, and Barack
Obama in his likes section.
Mark Zuckerberg has never specified his own
political views: some consider him a conservative,
while others consider him liberal. In 2013, numerous liberal and
progressive groups, such as The League of Conservation Voters,
MoveOn.org,
the Sierra Club,
Democracy for America, CREDO, Daily Kos,
350.org,
and Presente and Progressives United agreed to either pull their Facebook ad
buys or not buy Facebook ads for at least two weeks, in protest of Zuckerberg
ads funded by FWD.us that were in support of oil drilling and the Keystone XL pipeline, and in opposition
to Obamacare
among Republican US senators who back immigration reform.[clarification
needed]
On February 13, 2013, Zuckerberg hosted his
first ever fundraising event for New Jersey Governor Chris
Christie. Zuckerberg's particular interest on this occasion was
education reform, and Christie's education reform work focused on teachers
unions and the expansion of charter
schools. Later that year, Zuckerberg would host a campaign
fundraiser for Newark mayor Cory Booker,
who was running in the 2013 New Jersey
special Senate election. In September 2010, with the support of
Governor Chris Christie, Booker obtained a $100 million pledge from
Zuckerberg to Newark Public Schools. In December 2012,
Zuckerberg donated 18 million shares to the Silicon Valley Community Foundation,
a community organization that includes education in its list of grant-making
areas.
On April 11, 2013, Zuckerberg led the launch of
a 501(c)(4) lobbying group called FWD.us.
The founders and contributors to the group were primarily Silicon
Valley entrepreneurs and investors, and its president was Joe Green, a close friend of Zuckerberg.
The goals of the group include immigration reform, improving the state
of education in the US, and enabling more technological breakthroughs that
benefit the public, yet it has also been criticized for financing ads
advocating a variety of oil and gas development initiatives, including
drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the Keystone XL pipeline.
A media report on June 20, 2013 revealed that
Zuckerberg actively engaged with Facebook users on his own profile page after
the online publication of a FWD.us video. In response to a claim that the
FWD.us organization is "just about tech wanting to hire more
people", the Internet entrepreneur replied: "The bigger problem
we’re trying to address is ensuring the 11 million undocumented folks living
in this country now and similar folks in the future are treated fairly."
When questioned about the mid-2013 PRISM scandal at the TechCrunch
Disrupt conference in September 2013, Zuckerberg stated that the U.S.
government "blew it." He further explained that the government
performed poorly in regard to the protection of the freedoms of its citizens,
the economy, and companies.
Personal life
In September 2010, Zuckerberg invited Chan, by
then a medical student at the University of California,
to move into his rented Palo Alto house. Zuckerberg studied Mandarin
in preparation for the couple's visit to the People's Republic of China in
December 2010.On May 19, 2012, Zuckerberg and Chan married in Zuckerberg's
backyard in an event that also celebrated her graduation from medical school.
On July 31, 2015, Zuckerberg announced that he and Chan were expecting a baby
girl. He stated that he felt confident that the risk of miscarrying
was low so far into the pregnancy, after Chan had already suffered three
miscarriages.
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